the different lexical category in translation

the different lexical category in translation
谁能帮偶写一篇关于这个题目的文章,偶是用来写论文的,字越多越好哈,就是不要跑题哦.感激不尽,如果满意的话,
中文是英汉翻译的词义差异,只是想找点资料,不是帮忙写全篇的..

Lexical category
From Wikipedia,the free encyclopedia
In grammar,a lexical category (also word class,lexical class,or in traditional grammar part of speech) is a linguistic category of words (or more precisely lexical items),which is generally defined by the syntactic or morphological behaviour of the lexical item in question.Common linguistic categories include noun and verb,among others.There are open word classes,which constantly acquire new members,and closed word classes,which acquire new members infrequently if at all.
Different languages may have different lexical categories,or they might associate different properties to the same one.For example,Japanese has at least three classes of adjectives where English has one; Chinese and Japanese have measure words while European languages have nothing resembling them; many languages don't have a distinction between adjectives and adverbs,or adjectives and nouns[citation needed],etc.Many linguists argue that the formal distinctions between parts of speech must be made within the framework of a specific language or language family,and should not be carried over to other languages or language families.
History
The classification of words into lexical categories is found from the earliest moments in the history of linguistics.In the Nirukta,written in the 5th or 6th century BCE,the Sanskrit grammarian Y膩ska defined four main categories of words :
n膩ma - nouns or substantives
膩khy膩ta - verbs
upasarga - pre-verbs or prefixes
nip膩ta - particles,invariant words (perhaps prepositions)
These four were grouped into two large classes:inflected (nouns and verbs) and uninflected (pre-verbs and particles).
A century or two later,the Greek scholar Plato wrote in the Cratylus dialog that "...sentences are,I conceive,a combination of verbs [rh膿ma] and nouns [贸noma]".Another class,"conjunctions" (covering conjunctions,pronouns,and the article),was later added by Aristotle.
By the end of the 2nd century BCE,the classification scheme had been expanded into eight categories,seen in the T茅khn膿 grammatik茅:
Noun:a part of speech inflected for case,signifying a concrete or abstract entity
Verb:a part of speech without case inflection,but inflected for tense,person and number,signifying an activity or process performed or undergone
Participle:a part of speech sharing the features of the verb and the noun
Article:a part of speech inflected for case and preposed or postposed to nouns (the relative pronoun is meant by the postposed article)
Pronoun:a part of speech substitutable for a noun and marked for person
Preposition:a part of speech placed before other words in composition and in syntax
Adverb:a part of speech without inflection,in modification of or in addition to a verb
Conjunction:a part of speech binding together the discourse and filling gaps in its interpretation
The Latin grammarian Priscian (fl.500 CE) modified the above eight-fold system,substituting "interjection" for "article".It wasn't until 1767 that the adjective was taken as a separate class.
Traditional English grammar is patterned after the European tradition above,and is still taught in schools and used in dictionaries.It names eight parts of speech:noun,verb,adjective,adverb,pronoun,preposition,conjunction,and interjection (sometimes called an exclamation).
Controversies
Since the Greek grammarians of 2nd century BCE,parts of speech have been defined by morphological,syntactic and semantic criteria.However,there is currently no generally agreed-upon classification scheme that can apply to all languages,or even a set of criteria upon which such a scheme should be based.
Linguists recognize that the above list of eight word classes is simplified and artificial.For example,"adverb" is to some extent a catch-all class that includes words with many different functions.Some have even argued that the most basic of category distinctions,that of nouns and verbs,is unfounded,or not applicable to certain languages.
English
English frequently does not mark words as belonging to one part of speech or another.Words like neigh,break,outlaw,laser,microwave and telephone might all be either verb forms or nouns.Although -ly is an adverb marker,not all adverbs end in -ly and not all words ending in -ly are adverbs.For instance,tomorrow,slow,fast,crosswise can all be adverbs,while early,friendly,ugly are all adjectives (though early can also function as an adverb).
In certain circumstances,even words with primarily grammatical functions can be used as verbs or nouns,as in "We must look to the hows and not just the whys" or "Miranda was to-ing and fro-ing and not paying attention".
References
1.Robins,R.H.(1989).General Linguistics.4th ed.London:Longman.
2.Bimal Krishna Matilal (1990).The word and the world:India's contribution to the study of language.Oxford.Yaska is dealt with in Chapter 3.
3.Cratylus 431b.
4.Beauz茅e,Nicolas,Grammaire g茅n茅rale,ou exposition raisonn茅e des 茅l茅ments n茅cessaires du langage.(Paris,1767).
5.Zwicky,Arnold (2006).What part of speech is "the"?Some would label "the" as an adjective because it tells "which one" about the noun that follows it.By doing so,the word "the" is modifying the noun and,thus,it is quite adjectival.
6.Hopper,P.and S.Thompson.1985."The Iconicity of the Universal Categories 'Noun' and 'Verbs'".In Typological Studies in Language:Iconicity and Syntax.John Haiman (ed),vol.6,pp.151-183,Amsterdam:John Benjamins Publishing Company
7.Broschart,J眉rgen 1997."Why Tongan does it differently:Categorial Distinctions in a Language without Nouns and Verbs." Linguistic Typology 1(2):123-165.